Chapter 12: Lead, Silver and Copper Acquisition Networks | Download PDF
New Introductory Paragraph by Randall Law, 2024
Harappans used various kinds of metal (both alone and in combination) to fashion ornaments, tools and
many other items including cosmetics. In this chapter, the acquisition networks for lead, silver and
copper artifacts are traced using Pb isotope analysis.
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LEAD, SILVER AND COPPER ACQUISITION NETWORKS
Chapter introduction – Metals
Of the many rock and mineral varieties found at Indus Civilization sites, archaeologists have by far expended the most time and effort in the study of artifacts made of metals, in particular copper (for recent overviews see Agrawal 2000; Agrawal and Kharakwal 2003; Biwas 1996; Chakrabarti and Lahiri 1996; Kenoyer and Miller 1999; Shrivastava 2006). Despite all of the attention, attempts to correlate metal artifacts with their potential sources have been few and limited in nature. Sana Ullah (1940) compared the bulk chemical compositions of copper ores from deposits in Afghanistan and India to copper artifacts from Harappa and suggested that, based on the presence of nickel and arsenic, Harappan copper was probably derived from sources in Rajasthan. Much later Hegde and Ericson (1985) made seven Pb isotope assays on samples of chalcopyrite and galena from deposits in Rajasthan. Although their work was an important first-step for provenience research of this kind, they did not follow up with analyses of additional sources samples or, more importantly, of artifacts that could have been correlated with potential ore sources.
In an effort to advance this line of research another step forward, in this chapter, I compare metal artifacts from Harappa and eight other prehistoric sites to various metal ore deposits in Pakistan, India, Oman and Iran using lead isotope analysis. Geologists and archaeologists working in these areas have already isotopically assayed many of the lead, lead-silver and copper sources that would have been accessible to the ancient peoples of these regions. Here, previously published lead isotope data are compiled and presented along with the results of nearly 150 new assays of geologic source samples conducted specifically for this study. Together, these provide reasonably representative geologic databases, which I use to make provisional geologic provenience determinations for 86 metal artifacts or archaeological ore minerals composed of or containing lead. I have determined that, among other things, residents of Harappa acquired lead resources from deposits in at least three regions: Jammu and Kashmir, southern Balochistan and one other source area that has yet to be identified.
I begin this chapter by reviewing some of the forms in which the element lead (denoted by the abbreviation “Pb” – from the Latin “plumbum”) is found in both nature and in archaeological materials. A discussion of Pb isotopes and the technique used in this study to sample and measure them follows. Next, an explanation of how isotopic data are evaluated and displayed is provided. At that point, the Pb isotope database for lead deposits is presented in a region-by-region overview of isotopically assayed ore occurrences. After the potential lead sources have been evaluated and readied for comparison, the results of Pb isotope assays made for all of the lead ores, finished artifacts, slags and residues from Harappa are plotted in relation to them and provisional geologic provenience determinations are made. Assays of lead and/or silver artifacts from the sites of Mohenjo-daro, Allahdino, Nagwada, Gola Dhoro, Mehrgarh, Nausharo, Mundigak and Shahr-i-Sokhta are also evaluated in relation to the lead database. Finally, seven archaeological copper ore fragments from Harappa are compared to a second Pb isotope database put together from published data and new analyses of copper ores and slags collected previously unassayed copper deposits. In the conclusion of this chapter, I briefly discuss how these results inform our understanding of the lead, silver and copper acquisition networks in which Indus Civilization peoples, especially those at Harappa, were involved.
The rest of Chapter 12 is in the attached PDF below.
Images
Figure 12.1 A technique for non-destructive Pb isotope sampling and analysis of lead and silver artifacts
using ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and ICP-MS.
Figure 12.2 Isotopically assayed lead ore deposits of the greater Indus Valley region and other locations discussed in this chapter. The archaeological sites from which lead or silver artifacts were analyzed for this study are noted in red.
Figure 12.3 Isotopically assayed lead sources outside of the Greater Indus Valley region.
Figure 12.4 Map of the central Kanrach Valley, Las Bela District, southern Balochistan and lead deposits sampled for this study.
Figure 12.5 View looking north from the Duddar lead deposit, Kanrach Valley, Balochistan.
Figure 12.6 Sampling a galena seam at Bamph Nala, Kanrach Valley, Balochistan.
Figure 12.7 Select sites and lead deposits in Jammu and Kashmir.
Figure 12.8 Top - View from Kheri Kot looking north, above Sersendu Village and the Chenab River. Bottom images - Visiting one of the old lead mines at Kheri Kot and sampling galena.
Figure 12.9 Select Himachal Pradesh lead deposits and Punjab archaeological sites.
Figure 12.10 Sampling trip to the old silver mine at Uchich, Parvati Valley, Kullu District, Himachal Pradesh.
Figure 12.11 Old working and lead sample taken at Amba Kala, Himachal Pradesh.
Figure 12.12 Isotopically assayed lead sources and select Harappan and Ahar-Banas sites in the southern Rajasthan and northern Gujarat regions.
Figure 12.13 Old lead mine shaft and smelting slags at Rajpura-Dariba, Udaipur District, southern Rajasthan.
Figure 12.14 Sampling galena at Khera Mawal, Banaskantha District, northern Gujarat.
Figure 12.15 Top images - Modern lead-zinc-copper mine at Ambaji, Banaskantha District, northern Gujarat and a galena speckled sample taken at that location. Bottom images - Smelting slags near Ambaji at Kumbariya.
Figure 12.16 Sampling the lead occurrence at Khandia, Vadodara District, eastern Gujarat.
Figure 12.17 Sampling the old lead mine at Wadi Nujum, Oman.
Figure 12.18 Plot of Pb isotope ratios for galena samples from South Asian and eastern Arabian lead ore deposits. This is the main body of ore deposits. see Fig. 12.19 for outliers.
Figure 12.19 Isotopically outlying South Asian lead ore deposits.
Figure 12.20 Isotope "fields" of the "main body" of South Asian lead ore deposits.
Figure 12.21 Harappa site plan with numbered trenches and areas where lead ores, objects, slags or residues have been recovered. Dateable artifacts = (period). Others are surface/disturbed. Multiple artifacts = x number.
Figure 12.22 Three varieties of lead ore found at Harappa and pigments derived from them.
Figure 12.23 Raw lead ore fragments from Harappa plotted against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.24 "Finished" lead artifacts from Harappa.
Figure 12.25 "Finished" lead artifacts from Harappa plotted against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.26 Lead slags and melted lead lumps from Harappa.
Figure 12.27 Lead slags and melted lead lumps from Harappa plotted against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.28 A small faience bottle (H98/8158-26) with patches of lead residue adhering to its interior (see inset detail).
Figure 12.29 A small ceramic bottle fragment (H87/539-80) with a thick layer of residue in its interior that was identified by XRD as mainly being composed of cerussite.
Figure 12.30 Six tiny ceramic vessels from Harappa Museum's Reserve Collection. Only the one on the far right (# 3906) was found to have once contained a lead substance.
Figure 12.31 Artifact H88/197-1, which was originally described as a lead “rod” but is now believed to be a solidified lead residue.
Figure 12.32 Excavation and analysis of artifact H88/197-1. [A] The artifact was found within Feature 194a – a Period 3B burial. [B] Excavation of the “rod” in two pieces. [C] XRD revealed that it was composed of wulfenite (lead molybdate) and graphite. [D] BSE image of the “rod” in section. [E] Detail of the artifacts non-metallic, heterogeneous matrix with galena crystals imbedded within it.
Figure 12.33 [A] Wooden “kohl tube” from Gurob, Egypt, Image used courtesy of the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, University College London. [B] Reconstruction of a wooden “surma tube” with a applicator set into the powered lead-based cosmetic held within it. [C] Reconstruction of the oxidized remains of the surma after the tube and applicator. [D] Photograph and BSE scan section of artifact H88/197-1 for comparison.
Figure 12.34 Lead residues from Harappa plotted against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.35 Lead and silver artifacts from the site of Mundigak, Afghanistan.
Figure 12.36 [A] Galena fragment and [B] copper surma bottle from Mohenjo-Daro.
Figure 12.37 A flattened lead lump (BSR-5930) and a silver ring from (BSR-7053) from the site of Gola Dhoro, Gujarat.
Figure 12.38: EMPA analysis of a silver ring fragment from Nagwada.
Figure 12.39 Silver artifacts from Mohenjo-Daro sampled for this study.
Figure 12.40 The Allahdino jewelry hoard - top image. The 10 silver ornaments from the hoard sampled for this study - bottom image.
Figure 12.41 Lead and silver artifacts from eight sites plotted against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.42 [A] Lead artifacts from six sites plotted against select lead ore fields. [B] Silver artifacts from five sites plotted against select lead ore fields.
Figure 12.43 Plot of all Pb isotope determinations for archaeological samples (lead & silver) from all sites against South Asian lead ore fields.
Figure 12.44 Seven raw copper ore artifacts from Harappa.
Figure 12.45 Assayed copper ore deposits and archaeological sites featured in this section.
Figure 12.46 Top image - Looking toward the Khetri mines from Singhana with the small "mountains" of slag in the foreground. Bottom images - Fifteen meter high layered slag heap at Singhana.
Figure 12.47 View of mine and detail of copper oxidation at Chargaon, Kinnaur District, Himachal Pradesh.
Figure 12.48 Shin Kai copper prospect North Waziristan and detail of the copper oxidation/mineralization found there.
Figure 12.49 Copper deposits and towns (Harappan and modern) in relation to the Las Bela ophiolite of southern Balochistan
Figure 12.50 Isotopically assayed massive sulphide deposits and sites having Harappan materials in Oman.
Figure 12.51 [A] Pb isotope ratios for seven copper ore fragments from Harappa plotted against the ratios for samples (ores & slags) from seven copper sources in South Asia and Oman. [B] Pb isotope ratios for seven copper ore fragments from Harappa plotted against the ratios for samples (ores & slags) from select copper sources in South Asia and Oman.
Figure 12.52 [A] Pb isotope data for copper ores and artifacts superimposed on the "fields" of the main body of lead deposits. [B] Select copper ore data & lead "fields" plotted with copper and select lead artifacts.
The Chapter section titles are:
Lead, lead artifacts and artifacts containing or derived from lead
Lead isotope analysis
EDTA sampling of lead and silver artifacts and analysis using ICP-MS
Presenting and plotting Pb isotope data
Lead and silver
The Pb isotope database of potential Harappan lead and silver sources
Lead deposits in Balochistan
Lead deposits in the NWFP
Lead deposits in Jammu and Kashmir
Lead deposits in Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal
Lead deposits in Rajasthan and Gujarat
Lead deposits elsewhere in South Asia
Lead deposits in Oman and Iran
Afghanistan
Plotting and evaluating the Pb isotope data for South Asian lead deposits
Determining the probable geologic proveniences of lead artifacts from Harappa
Lead ores
“Finished” lead artifacts
Lead slags and lumps
Lead residues
Isotopic assays of lead and silver artifacts from other prehistoric sites
The sites and artifacts
Results
Lead artifacts
Silver artifacts
Interpretation of the Pb isotope data for lead and silver artifacts from all sites
Ongoing studies of lead and silver artifacts and sources
Copper
Copper ore at Harappa
The Pb isotope database for copper ore sources
The Aravallis
The Himalayas
Sources west of the Indus Valley
Iran
Oman
Analysis and results
A brief note on further and ongoing studies of Harappan copper
Comparison of the lead and copper datasets
Chapter conclusion
